Human mental operations. Forms and operations of thinking

Chapter 2 Thought Rafts Most people grow old living in a narrow ideological circle that they have not discovered for themselves. Luc de Clapier, Marquis de Vauvenargues, French moralist and writer

World Thought Rafts Globalization creates a paradox of sorts. Global technologies facilitate the establishment of contact between people, while global philosophy divides entire cultures that are under the pressure of the same technologies.

2. Basic mental operations

The process of problem solving is undoubtedly a model that most fully reflects the structure of intellectual activity, and the study of the features of this process can provide significant materials for understanding the psychology of human thinking. In the process of mental activity, a person learns the world using special mental operations. “These operations constitute various interconnected aspects of thinking that transform into each other. The main mental operations are analysis, synthesis, comparison, abstraction, concretization and generalization.”

Analysis is the mental decomposition of a whole into parts or the mental isolation of its sides, actions, and relationships from the whole. In its elementary form, analysis is expressed in the practical decomposition of objects into their component parts. A table, for example, can be divided into parts such as a lid, legs, drawers, spacers, etc. When introducing children to a plant, they are asked to show part of it (trunk, branches, leaves, roots). Analysis can be practical (when the thought process is directly included in speech activity) and mental (theoretical). If analysis is divorced from other operations, they become vicious and mechanistic. Elements of such an analysis are observed in a child in the first stages of the development of thinking, when the child disassembles and breaks toys into separate parts, without using them further.

Synthesis is the mental unification of parts, properties, actions into a single whole. The operation of synthesis is the opposite of analysis. In its process, the relationship of individual objects or phenomena as elements or parts to their complex whole, object or phenomenon is established. Synthesis is not a mechanical combination of parts and therefore cannot be reduced to their sum. When individual parts of a machine are connected, their synthesis produces not a pile of metal, but a machine capable of moving. When oxygen and hydrogen chemically combine, water is formed. Both synthesis and analysis occupy an important place in the intellectual process. So, when learning to read sounds and letters, a syllable is made, words are made from syllables, and sentences are made from words.

Analysis and synthesis always proceed in unity. Analyzing what includes something common, a whole. Synthesis also presupposes analysis: in order to combine some parts, elements into a single whole, these parts and characteristics must be obtained as a result of analysis. In mental activity, analysis and synthesis alternately come to the fore. The predominance of analysis or synthesis in thinking can be determined both by the nature of the material and the conditions of the task, and by the mental makeup of a person.

Comparison is the establishment of similarities or differences between objects and phenomena or their individual characteristics. In practice, comparison is observed when applying one object to another; for example, one pencil to another, a ruler to a desk, etc. This is how the process of comparison occurs when we measure space or weigh weights. Comparison can be one-sided (incomplete, based on one characteristic) or multilateral (complete, based on all characteristics); superficial and deep; unmediated and indirect. The main requirement for a comparison operation is that it be carried out in one relation. For a deeper and more accurate knowledge of activity, such a quality of thinking as the ability to find differences in the most similar objects and similarities in different ones is especially important.

Abstraction consists in the fact that the subject, isolating any properties, signs of the object being studied, is distracted from the rest. So we can talk about the color green as having a beneficial effect on human vision, without specifically indicating objects that are green. In this process, a feature separated from an object is thought independently of other features of the object and becomes an independent subject of thought. Abstraction is usually achieved through analysis. It was through abstraction that abstract, abstract concepts of length, breadth, quantity, equality, value, etc. were created. Abstraction is a complex process that depends on the uniqueness of the object being studied and the goals facing the researcher. Thanks to abstraction, a person can escape from the individual, the concrete. At the same time, abstraction does not exist without sensory support, otherwise it becomes meaningless and formal. Among the types of abstraction we can distinguish practical, directly included in the process of activity; sensual or external; higher, indirect, expressed in concepts.

Concretization involves the return of thought from the general and abstract to the concrete in order to reveal the content. Concretization is turned to in the event that the expressed thought turns out to be incomprehensible to others or it is necessary to show the manifestation of the general in the individual. When we are asked to give an example, then, in essence, the request is to specify the previous statements.

Generalization is the mental unification of objects and phenomena according to their common and essential characteristics. For example, similar characteristics found in apples, pears, plums, etc., are combined into one concept, which we express by the word “fruit.” Mental activity is always aimed at obtaining results. A person analyzes objects in order to identify general patterns in them and predict their properties. A psychologist studies people in order to reveal the general patterns of their development. The repetition of a certain set of properties in a number of objects indicates more or less significant connections between them. At the same time, generalization does not at all imply discarding the specific special properties of objects, but consists in revealing their essential connections. Essential, i.e. necessarily interconnected and, precisely because of this, inevitably repeating.

The simplest generalizations involve combining objects based on individual, random characteristics. More complex is complex generalization, in which objects are combined on different grounds. The most difficult generalization is one in which species and generic characteristics are clearly identified and the object is included in the system of concepts.

All of these operations cannot occur in isolation without connection with each other. On their basis, more complex operations arise, such as classification, systematization and others. Each of the mental operations can be considered as a corresponding mental action. At the same time, the activity, effective nature of human thinking, and the possibility of creative transformation of reality are emphasized. Human thinking not only includes various operations, but also occurs at various levels, including various forms, which together allows us to speak about the existence different types thinking. In psychology, several approaches have been developed to the problem of classifying types of thinking. As has already been shown above, in terms of the degree of development, thinking can be a discursive, step-by-step process, and an intuitive process, characterized by rapidity, the absence of clearly defined stages, and minimal awareness.

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Thinking as a mental activity includes a number of operations. The main mental operations include: comparison, analysis, synthesis, abstraction, specification And generalization.

Comparison- a mental operation during which the establishment of similarities and differences between phenomena occurs. To successfully carry out a comparison, the subject initially needs to identify the essential aspects and characteristics of the phenomenon, after which they are compared. Thanks to comparison, a person understands more deeply the uniqueness of various groups of objects.

Analysis- a mental operation characterized by mental decomposition, dismemberment of any complex phenomenon into its component parts (elements). As a result of the analysis, we have the opportunity to deeply study the characteristics of all constituent elements, see the nature of the relationship between various elements (study the structure) and thereby comprehend the essence of the entire phenomenon. We can analyze both a phenomenon that directly affects us at a given moment in time, and a phenomenon that is actualized in the psyche thanks to memory and representation.

Synthesis– a mental operation characterized by the mental reunification of various elements of a phenomenon. Thus, conventionally, synthesis can be considered an operation inverse to analysis. Thanks to synthesis, we form a holistic understanding of the phenomenon, taking into account the natural connections between its constituent elements. It cannot be argued that synthesis necessarily follows analysis. In the process of cognition, we often observe another situation: a person first connects various elements into a whole, forming a holistic image, and after that turns to a more detailed analysis of the elements.

Abstraction- a mental operation in which abstraction occurs from any properties or parts of an object (phenomenon) in order to highlight its most significant features. Consequently, we turn to abstraction when we need to particularly concentrate on the most important properties (parts) of the phenomenon being studied and distract from others. As a result of abstraction, abstract concepts are formed that indicate the essential features and properties of an object.

Specification- a mental operation in which a single object or phenomenon is represented in all the diversity of its various signs and properties. Those. concretization is the inverse operation of abstraction. Conventionally, we can say that concretization is a specific illustration of a phenomenon.

Generalization– a mental operation consisting of combining objects or phenomena according to their essential features and properties. Generalization is directly related to systematization and classification, which sometimes also relate to mental operations. When classifying on the basis of common characteristics, we identify different groups of phenomena, and when systematizing, connections are established between these groups that allow them to be considered as a system.

Mental operations are highlighted in order to consider different ways of solving mental problems. But in real life When solving various problems, mental operations are used not individually, but in combination. In this case, the combination of mental tasks is determined, on the one hand, by the nature of the problem at hand, and on the other, by the characteristics of the person’s cognitive sphere.

Solving mental problems. The problem is characterized by the fact that, on the one hand, there are certain conditions (what is given) and an unknown that needs (desired) to be found. If a person has already encountered this problem, then he can use the solution option that gave the desired result. However, in this case it can be stated that thinking is not involved. We have the right to talk about thinking only if a person has a task for which there is no ready answer. A similar situation denoted as problematic.

The mental task in each problem situation has its own specifics, which is reflected in the features of its solution. Types of searching for a solution to a problem can be very different, for example:

Search through systematic trials is associated with a sequential search of all possible solution options at each stage;

random search - a search for solution options that does not have any strict system and logic;

Selective search - the choice of solution method at this stage is determined taking into account the results of the solution of the previous stages;

Selective search is a way of solving problems using new, creative approaches.

As main stages of the thought process the following can be distinguished:

1. Motivation(the desire to solve a problem) is the most important condition for the effectiveness of the thinking process. A person who has a strong desire will show more persistence, and, other things being equal, he will have a greater chance of coming to the right decision.

2. Problem Analysis– a comprehensive study of the available data, consideration of everything that may be useful for the decision.

3. Finding a solution– various attempts to find possible ways to solve the problem. At this stage, the search types discussed above can be used.

4. Logical rationale for the decision– choosing from several options one, the most logically justified.

5. Implementation of the solution – practical use the chosen solution option.

6. Checking the solution found– assessment of the correctness or incorrectness of the implemented decision.

7. Solution correction if it is incorrect and return to the second stage.

Thinking- socially determined, inextricably linked with speech, mental process of searching and discovering new things, i.e. the process of a generalized and mediated reflection of reality in the course of analysis and synthesis.

Thinking as a special mental process has a number of specific characteristics and signs.

The first such sign is generalized a reflection of reality, since thinking is a reflection of the general in objects and phenomena of the real world and the application of generalizations to individual objects and phenomena.

The second, no less important, sign of thinking is indirect knowledge of objective reality. The essence of indirect cognition is that we are able to make judgments about the properties or characteristics of objects and phenomena without direct contact with them, but by analyzing indirect information.

The next most important characteristic feature of thinking is that thinking is always associated with the decision of one or another tasks, arising in the process of cognition or in practical activity. The process of thinking begins to manifest itself most clearly only when it arises problematic situation, which needs to be solved. Thinking always starts with question, the answer to which is purpose thinking

An extremely important feature of thinking is the inextricable connection with speech. The close connection between thinking and speech is expressed primarily in the fact that thoughts are always clothed in speech form. We always think in words, that is, we cannot think without uttering words.

Types of thinking.

The following types of thinking are distinguished:

- Visual and effective - here the solution to the problem is carried out using a real transformation of the situation based on a motor act. Those. the task is given clearly in a concrete form and the method of solution is practical action. This type of thinking is typical for a preschool child. This type of thinking also exists in higher animals.

Visual-figurative - a person recreates the situation necessary to solve a problem in a figurative form. Begins to form in older age before school age. In this case, in order to think, the child does not have to manipulate the object, but must clearly perceive or visualize this object.

- Verbal-logical(theoretical, reasoning, abstract) - thinking appears primarily in the form of abstract concepts and reasoning. Begins to develop at school age. Mastery of concepts occurs in the process of mastering various sciences. At the end of schooling, a system of concepts is formed. Moreover, we use concepts that sometimes do not have a direct figurative expression (honesty, pride). The development of verbal-logical thinking does not mean that the previous two types do not develop or disappear altogether. On the contrary, children and adults continue to develop all types of thinking. For example, an engineer or designer achieves greater perfection in visual and effective thinking (or when mastering new technology). In addition, all types of thinking are closely interrelated.

From the point of view of the originality of the problems being solved, thinking can be: creative(productive) and reproducing (reproductive). Creative is aimed at creating new ideas, reproductive is the application of ready-made knowledge and skills.

Forms of thinking - concepts, judgments, conclusions.

Concept- a thought that reflects the general, essential and distinctive features of objects and phenomena of reality (for example, the concept of “man”). There are concepts everyday(acquired through practical experience) and scientific(purchased during the training process). Concepts arise and develop in the process of development of science and technology. In them, people record the results of experience and knowledge.

Judgment - reflection of connections between objects and phenomena of reality or between their properties and characteristics.

Inference- such a connection between thoughts (concepts, judgments), as a result of which from one or several judgments we obtain another judgment, extracting it from the content of the original judgments.

Thinking processes.

There are several basic mental processes (mental operations) with the help of which mental activity is carried out.

Analysis- mental division of an object or phenomenon into its constituent parts, highlighting individual features in it. Analysis can be practical or mental.

Synthesis- mental connection of individual elements, parts and features into a single whole. But synthesis is not a mechanical connection of parts.

Analysis and synthesis are inextricably linked and provide comprehensive knowledge of reality. Analysis provides knowledge of individual elements, and synthesis, based on the results of analysis, provides knowledge of the object as a whole.

Comparison- comparison of objects and phenomena in order to find similarities or differences between them. Thanks to this thinking process, we understand most objects, because... we know an object only by equating it with something or distinguishing it from something.

As a result of comparison, we identify something common in the compared objects. That. Thus, a generalization is built on the basis of comparison.

Generalization - mental combination of objects into groups according to those common characteristics that are highlighted during the comparison process. Through this process, conclusions, rules and classifications are made (apples, pears, plums - fruits).

Abstraction consists in the fact that, by isolating any properties of the object being studied, a person is distracted from the rest. By abstraction, concepts are created (length, breadth, quantity, equality, value, etc.).

Specification involves the return of thought from the general and abstract to the concrete in order to reveal the content (give an example of a rule).

Thinking as a problem solving process.

The need for thinking arises primarily when, in the course of life, a person faces new problem. Those. thinking is necessary in situations in which a new goal arises, and the old methods of activity are no longer sufficient to achieve it. Such situations are called problematic . It is in a problem situation that the thinking process begins. In the course of activity, a person encounters something unknown, thinking is immediately included in the activity, and the problematic situation turns into a task perceived by the person.

Task - the goal of an activity given under certain conditions and requiring the use of means adequate to these conditions to achieve it. Any task includes: target, condition(known) what you're looking for(unknown). Depending on the nature of the final goal, tasks are distinguished practical(aimed at transforming material objects) and theoretical(aimed at understanding reality, for example, studying).

Principle of solving the problem : the unknown is always connected with something known, i.e. the unknown, interacting with the known, reveals some of its qualities.

Thinking and problem solving are closely related to each other. But this connection is not clear-cut. Problem solving is carried out only with the help of thinking. But thinking is manifested not only in solving problems, but also, for example, in acquiring knowledge, understanding text, posing a problem, i.e. for cognition (mastery of experience).

Individual characteristics of thinking.

Each person's thinking has some differences in certain properties.

Independence- a person’s ability to put forward new problems and find the necessary solutions without resorting to frequent help from other people.

Latitude- it is when cognitive activity person covers various areas (broad outlook).

Flexibility- the ability to change the solution plan outlined at the beginning if it no longer satisfies.

Rapidity- the ability of a person to quickly understand difficult situation, think quickly and make a decision.

Depth- ability to penetrate into the essence the most complex issues, the ability to see a problem where other people do not have a question (you need to have a Newton's head to see a problem in a falling apple).

Criticality- the ability to objectively evaluate one’s own and others’ thoughts (not consider one’s thoughts to be absolutely true).

In the process of mental activity, a person learns about the world around him with the help of special mental operations. These operations constitute various interconnected aspects of thinking that transform into each other. The main mental operations are analysis, synthesis, comparison, abstraction, concretization and generalization.

Analysis- this is the mental decomposition of the whole into parts or the mental isolation of its sides, actions and relationships from the whole. In its elementary form, analysis is expressed in the practical decomposition of objects into their component parts.

Synthesis- this is the mental unification of parts, properties, actions into a single whole. The operation of synthesis is the opposite of analysis. In its process, the relationship of individual objects or parts to their complex whole is established. Analysis and synthesis always proceed in unity. What is analyzed is what includes something common, a whole. Synthesis also presupposes analysis: in order to combine some parts or elements into a single whole, these parts and characteristics must be obtained as a result of analysis.

Comparison- this is the establishment of similarities or differences between objects and phenomena or their individual characteristics. In practice, comparison is observed when applying one object to another, for example, one pencil to another.

Abstraction consists in the fact that the subject, isolating any properties, signs of the object being studied, is distracted from the rest. In this process, a feature separated from an object is thought independently of other features of the object and becomes an independent subject of thought. Abstraction is usually done during the analysis process. It was through abstraction that abstract, abstract concepts of length, breadth, quantity, equality, and value were created.

Specification involves the return of thought from the general and abstract to the concrete in order to reveal the content. Concretization is turned to in the event that the expressed thought turns out to be incomprehensible to others or it is necessary to show the manifestation of the general in the individual. When we are asked to give an example, then, in essence, the request is to specify the previous statements.

Generalization– mental association of objects and phenomena according to their common and essential features, for example, identifying similar features found in apples, pears, etc. The simplest generalizations involve combining objects based on individual, random features. More complex is complex generalization, in which objects are combined on different grounds.

All of these operations cannot occur in isolation, without connection with each other. On their basis, more complex thinking operations arise.

In addition to operations, there are also thinking processes: 1) judgment– is a statement containing a certain thought; 2) inference– is a series of logically related statements from which new knowledge is derived; 3) definition of concepts is considered as a system of judgments about a certain class of objects (phenomena), highlighting the most general signs; 4) induction and deduction- these are ways of producing inferences that reflect the direction of thought. Induction involves the derivation of a particular judgment from a general one, and deduction presupposes the derivation of a general judgment from a particular one.